Jim Crow

“Segregation not only harms one physically but injures them spiritually.  It scars the soul.  It is a system which forever stares the segregated in the face saying ‘You are less. You are not equal to.’” – Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

Jim Crow Laws was a form of racial caste system in America that existed from 1877 to 1965.  The laws segregated the blacks from society forced a lesser race ideology.  The history of Jim Crow began years before the laws were actually put in place in 1877.  Before the Civil War, there were not segregation laws in place because society did not need them.    There were laws in place against freed slaves at that time, however this only impacted where they can be employed, but the extent of the laws did not become strict until after 1877.  Slaves were able to work side-by-side with whites as long as they were subservient.  The idea of Jim Crow was from the 1830’s minstrel skit by Thomas Dartmouth, AKA “Daddy Rice”.  The skit consisted of Dartmouth dressing up as a black, disabled slave.  He used African American Vernacular English and was in black face, where he would sing a song that was racially offensive.

After the Emancipation Proclamation was signed on January 1, 1863, the Reconstruction Era began in the United States of America.  Many African-American slaves were freed, and society moved forward with making these freed slaves U.S citizens.  Laws were put in place to protect these freedoms, and at this time black men could vote, serve in juries and run for office.  Because there were no laws that separated schools at this time, schools were fully integrated.  Laws were in place to protect the citizenship and rights of African Americans, however eventually these rights would slowly be taken away.  Beginning in the 1870’s, southern democrats slowly began to take control of the southern legislature.  They pushed a white supremacist ideology.  White supremacist groups such as the white league and the red coats tried to intimidate from voting and ran republicans out of town.  By 1877, white democrats gained control of almost every southern state, who legislated laws known of Jim Crow Laws, which officially began the Jim Crow era.

In the early 1880’s, black people were still on office, however from the 1880’s through the early 1910’s, laws were put in place to suppress black voters even further.  The democrats of the south passed laws that restricted who could vote, by implementing a voting tax, as well as literacy and comprehensive tests.  These tests were very extensive, and impossible to pass.  This reduced the number of black voters in southern states drastically.  White people living in poverty were also reduced, however they were eligible for a grandfather clause to keep their right to vote, while black people did not.  The statistics showed that around the south, blacks were suppressed from voting, and in Louisiana in 1910, only 0.5% of black men were registered to vote at that time.  Those who were registered to vote were threatened, beat and often times murdered in order to keep them from voting.

Clip from Selma (2015)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1YRUUFYeOPI

The laws that were put in place were solely for the purpose of keeping the races separated.  These laws limited intermarriage, integration of schools, bathrooms, restaurants, hospitals and other common areas.  The laws varied form state to state, other states having stricter laws than others.  The penalty for these laws also ranged from state to state, while most were viewed as a misdemeanor. 

•       Jim Crow Laws (by State)

The Jim Crow Laws were in place from 1877-1965.  In 1955, the Montgomery Bus Protest was a protest started by the arrest of Rosa Parks. The outrage of this incident led to a massive boycott, which ultimately ended in the integration of the buses.  It also inspired other civil rights groups to fight to reverse some of the segregated laws.  Eventually in 1964, President Lyndon Johnson signed the Civil Rights act of 1964, which ended public discrimination and segregation.  In 1965 the Voting Rights Act of 1965 ended barriers to voting for federal, state and local elections, marking the end of the Jim Crow era after 88 years. 

            Although Jim Crow is officially reversed in these southern states, a systematic racial system is still in place affected many African Americans in the United States, particularly African American men.  The term New Jim Crow was a term coined by legal scholar and civil rights attorney Michelle Alexander in her book The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness.  In her book, she discusses how the war on drugs and mass incarceration is a tool used to racially control society, and continues the ability to practice racial discrimination in the United States.  It is a reminder that although Jim Crow has ended, the ideology has not died, and there is still a strong prejudice that is still relevant in our country.

Sources:

•http://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/links/misclink/examples/homepage.htm

•Lasner, Lynn Fabian.  “Fighting Jim Crow.” Humanities, vol. 23, no 5.  October 2002.

•“Reconstruction and the Rise of Jim Crow.” The African-American Experience, Primary Source Media, 1999.  American Journey.

•Packard, Jerrald M.  American Nightmare: The History of Jim Crow.  New York: St Martin’s Press.  2002.  Ebsco.

•Cook-lynn, Elizabeth.  “Mass Incarceration is the new Racism.” Diversity Studies collection.

•http://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/links/misclink/examples/homepage.htm

4/11 Class Notes

Today in class we continued our discussion on Homegoing. Dr. West noted that part one of Homegoing took place before the Civil War and part two takes place after the emancipation. This set the stage for Claire and Kelsie to present their historical context. Claire presented on the Great Migration (1915-1960). In her presentation, she highlighted the reasons why African Americans migrated from the southern states to northern and western cities. She noted two key factors that African Americans faced in the south that led to the migration, this included economic (ex. no job opportunities) and social (ex. lynching) conditions.

Kelsie presented on the racial caste system, the Jim Crow laws (1877-1965). Jim Crow was coined by a man named Thomas Dartmouth, who would put on a black face, and make racist remarks toward African Americans. Kelsie highlighted that before Jim Crow, many African Americans had federal rights and were able to run for office, and black men were able to vote and made strides in education reform (ex. Louisiana). This era was known as Reconstruction (1863-1877). However, as African Americans began to gain influence in the political arena and gain momentum economically, white supremacist groups such as the White League, Red Shirts and Ku Klux Klan (KKK) began to discriminate against African Americans through the legislation of the Jim Crow laws (1890s). Kelsie highlighted some of the Jim Crow segregation laws; they included laws relating to marriage, bathrooms and burial grounds (Kelsie noted how segregation even followed African American even to death). The Jim Crow era ended in 1964-1965 with the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act. However, despite the end of the Jim Crow era, Kelsie noted the presence of a “New Jim Crow (2010)”, that Michelle Alexander famously stated in her book The New Jim Crow. This new Jim Crow has a similar presence in the Jim Crow era in the 1890s, with legislation that leads to mass incarceration amongst African Americans.

Following the presentations, we broke off into groups to discuss questions that Rachel (a student doing her dissertation on Homegoing) presented. Next,  we discussed the questions as a class with Rachel and Dr. West. The first question was “How do the three stories we've read in Part 2 begin to disrupt our romanticized understanding of "emancipation?” Group one noted that despite African Americans migrating to the north and no longer being slaves, they were still treated inhumanly and this continued with the Jim Crow laws. This was seen specifically with Kojo’s story. In the beginning, we see that Kojo is living a happy life, with a family and a stable job. However, this is disrupted when his pregnant wife is taken away, “he began to think about what life would be like without his wife, the woman he had loved hard and long. Everyone had been keeping up with what was becoming known as the ‘Bloodhound Law.’” (126).  

The second and third question had similar responses.The second question was “What connections exist between the story that is unfolding in Africa and the one in the United States?” The third question was “What connections exist between H's story and the stories from Part 1? What significance might those connections have?” We examined the text through symbolism and a cross- continental lenses. The group noted that in H’s story when he is in the coal mine in Alabama how that paralleled to Esi in the dungeon in the castle in Ghana. Additionally, both H and Esi were outcast. H was a big man and labeled as dangerous. Whereas, Esi was unmarried, which was not custom in that culture. We noted how this generational symbolism was a common pattern throughout the book.

We then discussed the fifth question, “What connections exist between Willie's story and the stories from Part 1? What significance might those connections have?” The group noted the recurring theme of generational trauma. Dr. West highlighted how the “voice” was taken away. This was seen in part one when James pinches Effie’s tongue. This same theme was present when Willie lost her ability to sing when she and Robert moved to Harlem. However, the chapter Willie ends with Willie regaining her voice when she steps into the church to sing. Both examples represent the oppression and generational trauma and experiences that took place despite the different context.

Next, we talked about question four, “What connections exist between Akua's story and the stories from Part 1? What significance might those connections have?” We noted the connection of cultural superiority seen with the example of Effie using a tribal tradition (roots) to increase her fertility and James becoming angry and forbidding her to practice her tradition because it is not Christian. He states, “Now, Effia, I don’t want any voodoo or black magic in this place. My men can’t here that I let my wrench place strange roots under the bed. It's not Christian.” (23)  This same tension was seen in Akua’s story when the Missionary tried to get her mother Abena to repent by baptizing her until she drowned. The Missionary states, “She thrashed as I lowered her down into the water. She thrashed and thrashed and thrashed, and then she was still” (189). Rachel also highlighted the role of Missionaries in both Akua’s story and Effie’s story. Both were being protected and guarded by these missionaries for survival. Furthermore, we also noted the theme of fire and how in Akua’s story the theme of fire is mentioned in the beginning in Akua’s dream. She states, “the fire was shaped like a women holding two babies to her heart” (177). Effie’s story fire destroyed the family, one child was born out of the fire and the other child born out of the water. Dr. West noted in class to pay attention to the tensions between fire and water.

We concluded class by noting the multiple ways in which we can read Homegoing. Dr. West suggested reading the story one continent at a time (skipping every other chapter). In addition, Dr. West wants us to pay attention to the racial segregation and intimidation, and how it changes form (shape) throughout the book.

The Great Migration

The Great Migration was the mass movement from 1915 to 1960 (with some sources saying as late as even 1970) of about 5 million African-Americans to the north and west. Initially, they moved to major cities in the United States such as Chicago, Detroit, Pittsburgh, and New York City; but as time went on and towards the time of World War II, they had moved also as far west as Los Angeles, Portland, and Seattle.

The African-American people who were living in the South during this time were experiencing not only just economic oppression, but also social oppression. Economically, there was a combination of the desire to escape oppressive conditions in farming and other opportunities that left little room for advancement. Socially, the heightened amount of lynchings, enforcement of Jim Crow laws, inequalities in the justice system and educational areas, and overall growth of violence within southern communities.

Additionally, the Northern states sent recruits to bring farming African-Americans up North to fill the positions left behind by the people who went to World War I. There were numerous opportunities in jobs such as farming, railroads, steel mills, factories, and tanneries. Since there was such a large need for workers up north, many southern African-Americans took the chance to leave the South to make a better life in a major city.

Those who left traveled by train, boat, bus, sometimes car, or even horse-drawn cart. The process of getting there was long and exhausting and took a lot of energy to make the stops and deal with people who were still unwelcoming to them. Often times this journey would occur in stages—stopping along the way to work for a while and then continue on their way.

These men, women, children, families; settled into the cities of the North (and later the West) and thus began the Urbanization in America. The influx of people in each city brought chaos, yet lots of diversity with the masses. Ultimately, the history of the African-American people began to change and they became more socially, politically, and culturally prominent in American cities, changing their backgrounds and stories forever. Out of this migration came the Harlem Renaissance and the Jazz Age—both incredibly influential periods of time in American society.

Sources: 

http://www.blackpast.org/aah/great-migration-1915-1960

http://www.american-historama.org/1913-1928-ww1-prohibition-era/ww1-great-migration.htm

http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8301459291491843025959?migration=8&bhcp=1

http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/long-lasting-legacy-great-migration-180960118/

4/6 Class Notes

Today in class, Dr. West encouraged to share our own experiences and influences that have shaped our relationship with race and racism in our in-class writing at the beginning of class. Dr. West mentioned the importance of this activity was to help us start to understand racial justice. We must start with the mind and “notice the water we swim in” which is often heavily influenced by our race. We should not feel the heavy burden of taking responsibility for our ancestors, rather be honest about our history and not gloss it over. She discussed the importance of balancing stories (the unfortunate details and the themes of love and resiliency of the human spirit) since there is an entanglement of goodness and brokenness.

Next, Morgan shared his historical context about the Underground Railroad. The name refers to the secret communication of “conductors”, “passengers”, and “stationmasters”. Encoded letters and gospel songs sung while working on the plantations would pass along messages. White and black abolitionists worked to free 100,000 slaves and instigate the Civil War. Some key figures in the operation were: Isaac Hopper, Harriet Tubman, Levi Coffin, and Frederick Douglas.

Dr. West shared a presentation that continued to give us context for the novel in a chronological fashion. Prior to 1650, indentured servitude was utilised before slavery. Freedom was an option if servants were baptized, and children were free when they were born. Starting in 1650 until 1700, slavery was race-based in the New World. Slaves were treated as economic commodities, mere pieces of property rather than humans. Violence and terror were used as control mechanisms. Families and groups were divided by language so as to suppress communication. Children were now born as slaves and women were raped to produce more slaves. Baptism did not lead to freedom any longer. 1700-1860 was defined by violent slavery. These conditions were reported. Class and color hierarchies were formed to further division. Laws passed in 1850 made it very difficult to remain free. Female slaves turned to infanticide to protect their children from the horrors of life as a slave. This period of time was challenged by abolitionists such as Frederick Douglas, David Walker, and Harriet Jacobs. Looking back on this time is crucial to avoid repeating it, yet glossing it over is even more dangerous than ignoring it. Dr. West shared the importance of a plantation museum that was created recently that does not romanticize plantation life. The Whitney dedicated a monument to writing the name of each slave they could trace. Statues were erected all over so visitors would not be able to ignore the fact that slavery took place there.

Next, we watched an interview with Yaa Gyasi, the author of Homegoing. She discussed How she wanted to write about the legacy of Ghana in America. She is from Ghana, but has lived in America. During a trip to Ghana in college,she realized how much she did not know about Ghana and the slave trade and wanted to make that information easier to get a hold of. She wanted her book to be fiction that was factually correct without preaching.

We ended class with an activity that had partners dive into a specific chapter of the novel to analyze the plot (what?), setting (where/when?), and character (who?) in that chapter. We will be creating a map to keep everything straight. We created a basic timeline of each sister’s descendents:

Effia (~1770s; Fante village/Cape Coast Castle)

Quey (~1779; takes over for father in the castle, then village)

James (~1824; British and Asante Wars, Fante, Kumasi, near the castle, and village)

Abena (~1860s; village and Kumasi)

Esi (~1770s; Asante and then Castle)

Ness (~1796; Alabama cotton plantations)

Kojo (~1850s-1860s; Baltimore)